History of Eugenics: How Those in Power Shape the Perfect Human Essay

Eugenics, the study of hereditary traits with the aim of producing an ideal human, and â€Å"on a societal level, programs that control human reproduction with the intent of changing the genetic structureof the population†, (Lewis, 299) are not a new concept. The history of eugenics reaches as far back as 400 B. C. , and extends to dates as recent as 1994. From Athens to Sparta, United States to Germany and China, the quest to improve the human race has spanned the world. ‘Improve’, however, is a highly subjective term. Who decides what an ideal human looks like? And what are the appropriate ways to build a race of such people? The answers to these questions have changed throughout the centuries. People considered ‘ideal’ by the eugenics program in one culture would be scheduled to be euthanized as ‘undesirable’ in another culture a few centuries later. Upon reviewing the history of eugenics, it becomes apparent that the section of a society in power at a particular time in history, usually seeks to eliminate those least like themselves, in order to impose not only their values, but their very phenotype on society at large. The first written accounts of eugenics reach back to 386 B. C. In his work â€Å"The Republic†, a description and plan for an Utopia, or ‘ideal society’, the Athenian philosopher Plato is said to have written that procreation should be controlled by the state. Through a state-sponsored selection of mates, â€Å"race would be strengthened by improved children†. (â€Å"Life of Plato†). Men aged 30-45 would be allowed to reproduce, as well as women aged 20-40. Any child born in violation of these laws would be abandoned outside the walls of the city. Some of Plato’s ideas had already been put into action in Sparta, around 431 BC. In line with the concept of ‘Eunomia’, weak male infants were left to die on slopes of Mt. Taygetus. (â€Å"The true story†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) â€Å"The Spartans practiced an uncompromising genetics programme. Newborn babies were raised only if healthy and perfect, so as not to be a burden to the state and to ensure genetic up-breeding. † (â€Å"Leonidas the Spartan†). It is worthy of noting that the Spartans were Greeks- with olive skin, dark curling hair, and brown eyes. To them, physical fitness was more important than moral virtues: â€Å"Sparta was hardly famous for chaste women,† according to Euripides, a then-contemporary writer. â€Å"Leonidas†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) The ideal person was a strong, fit male, and a woman who could reproduce often, bearing healthy children. This ideal was written into law by the Spartan King Leonidas, and adhered to until the eventual fall of the Spartan city-state. The next worldwide resurgence of eugenics occurred in the Victorian era. In 1863, Britain’s Sir Francis Galton, who was a cousin of Charles Darwin, coined the term ‘eugenics. ’ (Lewis, 300). He theorized that the mating of two talented people would produce better offspring. (â€Å"Eugenics Timeline†). His ideas rapidly spread to the United States and Germany. The concept of selective mating to achieve the elimination of undesirable traits became popular. â€Å"Stanford President David Starr Jordan originated the notion of â€Å"race and blood† in his 1902 racial epistle â€Å"Blood of a Nation,† in which the university scholar declared that human qualities and conditions such as talent and poverty were passed through the blood. † (Black, Edwin. ) Soon after, in 1907, the US state of Indiana passed the world’s first mandatory sterilization law. (Smith, pg. 36-137). The aim of the law was to prevent the birth of children which might inherit such undesirable traits as ‘criminality, mental defects and feeble-mindedness’. In 1911, the â€Å"Preliminary Report of the Committee of the Eugenic Section of the American Breeder’s Association to Study and to Report on the Best Practical Means for Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasm in the Human Population†, a venture which was supported by Andrew Carnegie, one of the greatest philanthropists of that era, listed 18 solutions to resolve this problem. Number Eight was euthanasia of undesirables. A gas chamber was suggested as a possible option. (Black, Edwin). In 1918, Paul Popenoe wrote a widely used textbook, â€Å"Applied Eugenics†, which again recommended euthanasia: â€Å"From an historical point of view, the first method which presents itself is execution†¦ Its value in keeping up the standard of the race should not be underestimated. â€Å"(Black, Edwin). We may be tempted to believe that euthanasia as a form of genetic control never came to be used in the United States, but this is not the case. At the ame time Popenoe propagated his ideas, a mental institution in Lincoln, Illinois had a policy of feeding incoming patients milk from tuberculosis-infected cows. It was thought that an ‘eugenically strong’ individual would be immune. The institution had a 30-40% death rate of incoming patients. (Black, Edwin. ) But those deemed insane were only the first on the long list of people considered ‘genetically inferior’. They were closely followed by those deemed ‘feeble-minded’ or ‘licentious’. Most recent immigrants fell into the first group- IQ tests of the time determined that the average immigrant had a â€Å"moron-grade† intelligence level. Smith, John David. pg. 161) IQ was considered an innate characteristic, something that was definite, unchangeable and inheritable. Nevermind the fact that the IQ tests were administered in what usually the immigrants’ second language, by untrained secretaries or other flunkies , and skewed to favor Americans of ‘Nordic’ descent. Because of economic hardship during those times, many people in power sought to limit the tide of immigrants- which were coming mostly from Eastern European countries, as well as Italy. Eugenecists and their wealthy supporters shared an antipathy for [†¦] class struggle†, and considered ‘poverty’ another inheritable trait. In this way, they could successfully â€Å"blame the victims for their own problems†. (Allen, Garland E. â€Å"Social Origins of Eugenics†. ) Jews and Gypsies, in addition to African-Americans, were also considered of inferior genetic stock, because they did not represent the Nordic phenotype ideal that was most similar to those in the ‘ruling class’. Eugenic tests were conducted to support this agenda. The results were mostly skewed, and sometimes, as in the now-infamous Kalikak study, altogether manufactured. The Kalikak study was the basis of a book written in 1914 by Henry Goddard, titled â€Å"Feeblemindedness: Its Causes and Consequences. † The book became very influential, and led to many states adopting laws for the forcible sterilization of ‘feebleminded’ individuals, and other undesirable traits shuch as being ‘passionate’ or ‘sexually wayward’. In Sonoma, California, some women were sterilized because of ‘abnormally large clitoris or labia’, which doctors thought may lead to licentious behavior! Black, Edwin. ) Rapists and similar criminals were generally not subjected to sterilization; instead, most of the sterilized were women. It quickly becomes apparent that the less-than-ideal traits in the United States in this age were: being promiscuous, socially dependent, or from a non-Nordic country. These qualities are quite different from those considered undesirable a few centuries earlier, by the Athenians and Spartans. The spread of eugenics continued, from the United States to Germany. Germany was undergoing great economic hardship after WWI, and Hitler’s proclamation that they were of a superior ‘Germanic’ or ‘Aryan’ race and thus entitled to more of the world’s resources was very well received. In 1924, Hitler espoused his version of eugenics in his book ‘Mein Kampf’. Hitler even wrote a fan letter to US eugenics leader Madison Grant, calling Grant’s book ‘The Passing of the Great Race’ his ‘bible’. (Black, Edwin. ) Hitler’s ideas corresponded to the American eugenecists concepts of the superiority of a White Race. In the US, marriage between Whites and Blacks was forbidden by law in many states, with the aim of keeping the ‘superior’ White race ‘pure’. In fact, inter-racial marriage did not become universally legal in the United States until 1967. Because of their similar outlooks, American and Nazi eugenicists often corresponded and shared research. John D. Rockefeller even donated $410,000 ($4 million by today’s standards) to German researchers for eugenics research. The ‘research’ was done on Jews, Gypsies and others. In 1932, the Rockefeller Foundation gave additional funds for the Germans’ research on twins and â€Å"substances toxic to germ plasm†. In other words, human testing of lethal substances, or those causing infertility. As eugenics research continued, so did the collaboration of German and American scientists- in 1934 there was even a Nazi display in LA, for the annual meeting of the American Public Health Association. (Black, Edwin). The Germans seized upon the American idea of sterilization of undesirables, and by 1934, were sterilizing 5,000 people per month. By 1939, they had moved on to euthanizing 5,000 children with birth defects or mental retardation, followed by 70,000 ‘unfit’ adults. (Lewis, Ricky. pg 300) As WWII swept over Europe and Hitler gained control of more lands, his armies and his doctors embarked on a quest of purging the lands of their native, ‘inferior’ populations. According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, â€Å"in 1933, there were approximately 9 million Jews in Europe. By 1945, the Nazis had reduced that number to about 3 million. Roma (Gypsies) were also sent to the concentration camps, resulting in about 200,000 Gypsy deaths. Physically and mentally handicapped, homosexuals, and Polish intellectuals accounted for at least another 200,000. This totals about 6,400,000 victims of the concentration camps. The Nazis also killed between 2 and 3 million Soviet prisoners in labor camps or executions. Added to this toll should be the non-Jewish Poles and Soviets sent to forced labor who died due to malnutrition, unsafe work conditions, disease and â€Å"experimentation. † The experimentation in question was most notably conducted by Josef Mengele, an eugenicist who arrived in 1943 in Auschwitz. His aim was to conduct ‘anthropological testing’, which involved gruesome torture of his subjects. (Black, Edwin. ) Once again, the prerogatives of the class in power influenced the eugenics movement, by seeking ways to eliminate those not fitting the ‘Aryan’ ideal, which included men and women who were tall, blonde and blue-eyed, and of the ‘pure’ Germanic stock. After World War II, eugenics was declared ‘a crime against humanity’. (Black, Edwin. ) The American eugenics movement was renamed â€Å"human genetics† in 1949, and many of the same scientists continued their research. Meanwhile in Germany, Mengele’s boss and mentor became a dean of a university, and a member of the American Society of Human Genetics. The eugenics movement, though renamed, was not extinct. Eugenics laws were passed as recently as 1994 in China. â€Å"The Maternal and Infant Health Care Law’ proposed to â€Å"ensure the quality of the newborn population† and forbid procreation between two people if physical exams show ‘genetic disease of a serious nature’† including mental illness, seizures and other conditions that were ill-defined and not necessarily inherited. (Lewis, Ricky. g. 300) Given the oppression, infanticide, forced sterilization and genocide that resulted from humans’ attempts at eugenics over the course of history, it is difficult to see any positive aspects of the concept. Because the ruling class determines the ‘desirability’ of superior traits, any benefit to mankind in general is doubtful- the perceived benefit to some comes at the price of the suffering and death of many. Overall, eugenics seems to seek to negatively impact genetic diversity, which has long been a quality that has facilitated the survival of mankind. The presence of eugenics in modern times is the subject of much debate. Some interpret the assistance given to infertile couples in modern times as a form of eugenics, but this is hardly the case. These are merely the attempts of individual people to have a baby which looks like them, to fulfill their dreams of having a family. No one is paying them to reproduce any supposedly-superior genes (‘positive eugenics’), or trying to limit their reproductive rights (‘negative eugenics’), (Lewis, Ricky. g. 299) There is also the matter of the genetic research into the Human Genome, and by extension, into inherited genetic diseases. However, this research aims to limit human suffering, is non-invasive for the patient and leaves all decisions to the parents of the potentially-affected offspring. None of the aspects of ‘negative eugenics’, such as sterilization of the parents or the abortion of the fetus are mandated by any law, and any government at this time. Nonetheless, human rights activists and all citizens must remain alert, lest the ghost of eugenics should rear its ugly head again. Genetic history should never be a matter of public record, and a person’s genes should never be the basis of discrimination against them. Federal genetic anti-discrimination legislation was finalized in the US in 2008, and it is hoped that other countries will follow suit. We must always remember the injustices committed in the past, in the name of ‘creating the ideal human’, and strive to prevent them in the future.

Observation Paper Essay

On Wednesday July 2nd, 2014 I visited Wiley Mildred Family Day care center to observe a group of children that I have never met at a house I have never been to. Throughout my hour that I spent at Wiley Mildred I observed a group of children interacting with each other as well as the caregivers as they were having their outside privileges. As I conducted my observation I studied children’s actions and noticed the practicing of the Sociocultural Theory, the Social Learning Theory, the Cognitive Theory, and the Psychoanalytic Theory. All these theories were able to be observed through actions this is due to their environment around them and the activities they were engaged in. The observation taught me how significant an action can be for a developing child and how important it is for a child in a care center to be mentally and physically stimulated. Wiley Mildred is an average family home in a quiet residential area in Victorville, CA. Upon arriving at the house I noticed the establishment had gates separating the front-yard and backyard that were securely locked and baby-proof. As I rang the door-bell I was greeted into the house with smiles and warm greetings. The director of the facilities name is Gloria, a Latina woman with a very thick accent; she had an assistant whose name was not given. Right away I was taken to the back-yard as it was â€Å"recess time.† Gloria’s backyard was very open and large it contained a grassy area, a woodchip area and a concrete area as well, in each area different toys and materials were in use. In the grassy area there were two smaller slides, small chairs, and many toys that children must use their fine motor skills to operate. In the woodchip area there were larger structures; my favorite was the teeter-totter in the shape of a plane that fit a total of six children. There were three different play structures of moderate sizes, some with slides and some with platforms to climb and stand on; all requiring a child’s gross motor skills to operate. The concrete area had multiple small teeter-totters, along with two merry go rounds, a girl’s play house, and three tricycles. The children at the day care were surprisingly of all  different ages, ranging from age one and a half all the way to age eight; the most common age of the children was age four. I noticed that on a small table all the children had their own specific cup and were all given plenty of water throughout play time and they drank it very willingly. Gloria explained to me that she only let’s them drink water, especially during outside time when it’s so hot and they need to stay hydrated. Gloria had a very open backyard, no area being to separated from one another, this made it very effortless for all the children to play together, all being stimulated simultaneously; no matter what their age, sex, or race were they all involved in playtime. As all the children were playing Gloria and the assistant constantly were talking to all of them, playin g learning games such as guessing colors and shapes; they also used both English and Spanish when talking to all the children, not just the ones that already knew Spanish. During my observation, I took a trip to the bathroom so I could get a look around the house and to see what the sanitation and safety of the facility was like. As I walked through the house I noticed how extremely clean the house was, and the bathroom was just as clean as well. Each potty training child brought their own toilet trainer seat with them every day to ensure cleanliness, and the babies in diapers were always changed in a specific room. On my walk back to the backyard I examined that every door knob, cabinet, drawer and electricity plug were completely baby-proof. After completing my observation, my personal conclusion on Wiley Mildred Family Day care center was more than positive; it was a very nurturing environment for the children of all ages to grasps the idea that a child must always be safe, clean, and stimulated when in the care of others. I began my observation with seven kids and throughout the hour it reached ended with a total of twelve kids. Each child was unique in his or her own way but all had similarities as well. A few of the children could be grouped with a much larger class because they had the aspects for a certain theory. The first theory I notice could be applied was the Psychoanalytic theory; the idea that an individual’s actions and initiatives derive from unconscious inclinations. I observed a little boy around the age of two looking at a bird that had landed at the top of the gate, at first he seemed fearless but as the bird flew away it frightened him and he instinctively clung to the care givers leg. This relates to the psychoanalytic theory because when  frightened he impulsively grabbed onto an adult he is comfortable with, this can mean that finds safety in adults or was scared a great deal as an infant making him more timid and afraid than other children. Next, I observed the Social Learning Theory being put to use; the concept that behavior is learned by the behavior of others. For this theo ry I watched the youngest child which was about a year and a half old. When she was told to go down the slide she was shy and hesitant but, subsequent to watching an older boy go down the slide with pleasure, she went on the slide and persisted to go on the slide repeatedly. This grasps the concept of the Social Learning Theory for the reason that without seeing the little boy go down the slide to know that it was secure and enjoyable the little girl would of by no means went, she learned the concept of going down the slide from another individual and mastered the skill personally. The Sociocultural Theory deals with the growth and nurturing of children through cultures and societies. The caregiver as explained had a heavy accent and was more comfortable with Spanish than English; Gloria watched over Latin-American children as well as African-American children, and she spoke Spanish to the both of them. This is an example of the Sociocultural theory because although the African-American children were obviously not fluent in Spanish they were being engaged in languages and cultures of another country, and the oldest of the African-American children even wanted to learn more Spanish. The last theory I observed was the Cognitive Theory, the proposal that thought procedures are influential weights on an individual’s attitude. As the birds were perched on the fence in the back yard another young child around the age of three was staring intensely, not sure exactly what it was she was looking at. With the aid of the care giver using assimilation and reassuring her that is was a bird, the child was building â€Å"schemas† in her head so that equilibrium can occur. As the bird left and came back shortly the child was ecstatic and repeating, â€Å"Bird!† An aspect of the cognitive theory is the child’s process of learning something new and mastering a new skill with the help of assimilation. Each child throughout their development can be a part of any one of these theories; observing children truly shows how much can be observed and learned in such little time. Due to the fact that I observed the children of Wiley Mildred Family Day  Care Center during their outside time I was able to observe multiple developmental appropriate activities for the reason that playtime is when the children apply their developing skills the most. The children engrossed themselves in various developing activities, some dealt with their fine motor skills, some involved their gross motor skills, and other activities dealt with coordination and cognitive development. The gross motor skills required activities were the easiest to observe and document such as; using the teeter-totter, going down the slide, racing, climbing up the play structures, playing basketball, spinning each other on the merry-go-round, and riding the tricycle. Activities relating to gross motor skills were the largest to be observed mainly because during active play children engage themselves in more vigorous doings, which generally deals with larger, whole-body muscle engagement rather than minor muscle utilization. I then looked for fine motor skill related activities; although they were less to see compared to gross motor skills I did observe them. I noticed a young boy picking up little rocks about the size of a ping pong ball, and transferring them to the other side of the yard, little girls played patty cake with the directors assistant; enjoying when they had to engage their hands in the process of â€Å"baking a cake.† The most amusing use of fine motor skills I observed, was a little boy trying to blow bubbles, he could not hold the stick and kept dropping it and picking it up continuously until with assimilation from the director he learned to hold the handle and not the end you blow bubbles with. The last observations I made dealt with coordination and cognitive growth, the younger children played a game that required them to match an animal sound with the certain animal this dealt with their coordination as they are learning to match one object with its corresponding sound. Role-playing is a sign of cognitive growth; it shows the child not only becoming self-aware but it also shows them beginning to realize that not everyone thinks and acts exactly as they do themselves. Outside play time not only entertains children but is a prime moment in time for the attaining of necessary skills children will continue to use for the rest of their life. After conducting my observation and taking time to reflect and research on what I saw I can unquestionably say that I have learned first-hand that a  child is a fragile and divine creation of their own and if they is not given the necessary stimulus, encouragement and basic precautions a divine creation can turn into what you can call a beautiful disaster. Through the duration of my study, I was able to relate multiple theories to real-life situations rather than just reading about them in books; theories such as Psychoanalytic, Sociocultural, Cognitive, and Social Learning. All theories support the research and observations of great psychologists such as Piaget and Vygotsky; after carrying out my own personal observation I have taken minor steps on the ongoing path these psychologists have traveled on and contributed personally to the persistent development of child development as a whole. All in all, Wiley Mildred Family Day Care Center was a demonstrative, cultivating environment that is a prime environment for a child to grow and develop with other individuals and as well as themselves through engagement of attributing skills. If you would personally like to contact Wiley Mildred Family Day Care Center they are located at 14623 Karen Dr. Victorville, CA and the director Gloria can be reached at her facility by the number, (760) 951-2781.

Personal and Imaginative – Scarred for Life

This was it. My legs were lead; my head throbbed violently. It felt as if the energy within me had slowly oozed away. I dragged my feet like I was being held down by iron chains. Gathering every ounce of my might, I heaved myself towards the bench- and collapsed upon it. Where was I? No clue. That was all I'd been saying to myself since the taxi left. And how long ago was that? Two hours†¦three hours†¦four hours? Still no clue. I hated myself for being so thick. If it wasn't for my ‘thick' brain, I would have been home by now. Home. I felt useless. â€Å"What the hell you doin' ere?† I looked up so fast it made my neck click; my anger rose. It was a brown haired boy who I guessed was trying to pass the time. I found him annoying. I wasn't in the mood of talking to anyone-I hardly ever was. â€Å"You tell me.† I replied stiffly. â€Å"Ain't seen you around this place.† I felt like punching him. I hated this about some people, butting in when they were least wanted. â€Å"That's 'cause I ain't from dis place.† I grumbled, glancing at him, thinking how much longer is he going to stay? There was a pause. Then, just as soon as I expected him to leave, he demanded, â€Å"Where you from then?† â€Å"Look yeh, I don't know you an' I ain't in da mood. So move.† I stated through gritted teeth, giving him the dirtiest look I could muster. He finally got the message and went off, gruffly. I didn't understand myself; I never used to be like this. My mood switched within seconds and I knew that many people found it hard around me. Even my own mates kept their distance from me at times. But they understood that I had a past. Life had changed a lot for me, and since that change, I was never the same person. I cast my eyes around, taking in my surroundings. Even though the street lamps were alight, the road seemed unusually dark. I squinted and could just make out the scenes of every day life before me. Here and there figures would move about; some closing their shops, others walking hastily, making their way home. I gazed blankly at the movements, not bothering to move from my seat. Eventually, the very last of the people edged away towards the end of the street, their silhouettes disappearing from under the very last street lamp. Silence followed. Almost radically, a harsh wind had begun to bluster, causing my numb face to sting. Fed up with my position, I pulled up my hood, got up from the rigid bench and stepped on to the road. The sound of my trainers hitting against the pavement seemed to echo into the night, leaving behind a lethal dead-like silence like that of graveyard. Trying to block out this atmosphere, I began to recount the event that occurred on the taxi†¦ I couldn't believe my stupidity. Losing my mobile was one thing- but losing my purse-on the same day†¦a bit extreme huh? And to make matters worse, being the idiot that I am, I tried to get home in a taxi when I was totally broke! The reaction the driver had when he realised I wasn't going pay was severe to say the least. I knew people had strange solutions but leaving me in the middle of God-knows-where was a bit too strange. Sad or what? Well, what was done was done and I knew there was no way in changing it. Thinking about it wasn't going to get me anywhere. My main priority was to see how to get home. I inhaled deeply as the bleak air rushed in to my blood. What was the point in living when surviving was so hard? Upon reaching the end of the street, I became aware of the bend which had not been visible to me from the bench. It was murky and even at this distance I could not make out what lay on its other side. As I began to make my way through it, my stomach gave a discomforting squirm. I didn't know why that was? Was it the darkness that had just fallen over me? Or the strengthening of the silence which had now reached its peak? Being able to distinguish traces of a light, I became relieved to know that I had entered just another street. This time there were no shops, but instead stood half a dozen or so houses, which I could tell were grand as well as ancient. They were positioned with a great deal of space and on either side of the road which lay in front of me. At the far end, I could discriminate the park which stood out due to its rusty iron gate. As my vision became clearer, I noticed a dark profile standing within the shadow of the great oak tree. Who would be out at this time of night? Or was it a trick of light? Sensing movement, I knew for sure that it wasn't just a fragment of my imagination. My heart began to beat loudly, vibrating heavily in my throat. Now I knew I wasn't alone. It ambled out from under the tree; light shining upon its limp body. Slowly, it began dragging its body in an oddly held manner. It – he was hurt. A slow moaning uttered from his mouth, and my fear turned into grief on seeing the pain radiating from him. On realising that his direction was headed my way, I heaved my body behind the nearest bush, afraid of being seen. From his gnawed, wrinkly hands, I realised he was well aged. His face was entirely hidden, due to the hood of his festering coat. He had now reached a house opposite me, one which I had not noticed due to its miniscule size. It was dilapidated and it showed no sign of warmth. Was this his house? I heard keys dropping, breaking the silence, and watched as he bent to pick them up. As he did so, his hood fell from his face. I screamed†¦ Everything was indistinct, the face flashed in front of me again, yet this time it looked younger by a few years. I could hear loud terrible screaming from within my own head. So loud that I thought that my head would explode. The screaming went on, never ending. The pain searing in the shrill cries was too much to take in. The screaming didn't come from the face, yet I recognised it. But it couldn't be! I tried to cry for help but nothing came out. Slowly, the picture blurred and my vision became focused†¦ My inhalation was hard, my heart aching endlessly. I tried to hold my breath, trembling from head to toe. Cold sweat trickled down my face and my clothes were soaked, clinging to my skin. How much time had passed? A door slammed shut, its reverberation hanging in the atmosphere. I turned my head towards the house- had the man just gone in? It had been ten years. Ten long, painful years since I had heard my brother's voice, shrieking with agonising pain just the same as on that night. The night that I last saw him alive. Was it just a coincidence that I had just seen the convict? All I remembered was the assassin's terribly scarred face, which had appeared there on the day my brother had fought eagerly for his life, aiming viciously at his face. This man was marked – scarred for life. Since then, I had promised myself to find the man who had finished my little brother off- and now that I had found him, there was no way I was going to let him escape. Not this time. No way†¦

Cranach the Eders Alter Piece at Wellenburg Essay

Cranach the Eders Alter Piece at Wellenburg - Essay Example There was a strong belief at the time that man was connected to God in many ways. Catholics believed that Godliness was separate and their paintings and art clearly showed that. The Protestants had a little different way of seeing that issue though and Crach the Eder's Alter piece at Wellenburg shows that. The main part of the movement is shown well here, as the Protestants wanted to show that the worshipers were well in connection with the Devine. What better way to do that then to place those that were formulating and moving the Reformation forward at the table of the Last Supper. In this picture, the people sitting all around the table are the Reformers. They clearly do not look like Godly creatures or at least not in the sense that we often think of them. Instead they look like the average person of the day. The Protestant group's artistic bent was toward showing common people as part of the divine as they performed their everyday activities. (Fiero, 2006). After all, God created man in his own image so man was perfect. Right (Fiero, 2006). So, why not show man as part of Gods world. That is what their art did. Devine grace was what they hoped to portray, sometimes they showed sinners that were accepted by Christ. This was supposed to depict that only the grace of God could give anyone Salvation. Even today, there is a great deal of disagreement about these things between Catholics and Protestants.

Leadership & Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Leadership & Ethics - Essay Example Gandhi experimented by majoring on the weakest points of humanity. This problem on belief of the soul could not work. According to Gandhi, he could not explain his weaknesses to draw an answer from the likes of Lord Wavell or Hitler (Jagdeep S. et al, pp 979). Another weakness of Gandhi was evident between him and Kasturbai the wife. Gandhi forced his wife to do what opposed her internalized values. Gandhi portrayed the same coercion in relating to his children. This at times made Gandhi to oppose his notion of being non-violent. As women had been longed nurtured with role to embrace self sacrifice this element of being nonviolent proved violent. Gandhi possessed an element of repression and authoritarian. Gandhi never spoke to his son as he choose a different religion and went against his believes. Furthermore, Gandhi fell in love with her secretary and hence forcing her to fast and shave off. This was a sign of weakness. From this point of view there is no sense in being sexually attracted to one another if there exist violence and hang

Space Shuttle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Space Shuttle - Essay Example Nixon and vice president Spiro T. Agnew. They presented their objective after evaluating the previous studies related to shuttle science. First, to have a national space strategy and second, to build a space shuttle. The big question took place while the earliest development of space shuttle, the debate was about the optimal shuttle design with the purpose of best balanced capability, development cost and operating cost. Eventually the already existing design was selected, using a reusable winged orbiter, solid rocket boosters, and expendable external tank. The Shuttle program was officially commenced on January 5, 1972, just after the announcement that NASA would precede with the development of a reusable Space Shuttle system by President Nixon. The final design was less pricey to manufacture and less technically striving as compared to the earlier fully reusable designs. When the Apollo space program was about to finish, NASA officials were looking at the big picture of the American space program. They used one-shot, disposable rockets. All they wanted is a cost effective, reliable rocket and something which is reusable. This main idea of space shuttle being reusable was that it could launch like a real rocket but land like an airplane which would be considered as one of the greatest technical achievement. As soon as NASA began to study the ... President Nixon in 1972 announced that NASA would develop a reusable space shuttle or space transportation system (STS). Later it was decided that the shuttle would consist of an orbiter directly attached to the solid rocket boosters and also an external fuel tank. It was awarded the prime contract to Rockwell International. Then, spacecraft which were made used ablative heat shields that would burn away as the spacecraft re-entered the Earth's atmosphere. Where as, if the rocket is to be reusable it has to use the different strategy. So the designers and manufacturer of the space shuttle suggested an idea which was to use many insulating ceramic tiles to cover the space shuttle which could absorb the heat of re-entering without hurting the astronauts. As the shuttle was to fly like a plane (more like a glider), while landing. So a working orbiter was also built up for testing the aerodynamic design, but it won't go into the outer space. This orbiter was named the Enterprise afterwards it was known as the "Star Trek" starship. So this required test flights which Enterprise took care of the numerous test flights and landings, where it was launched from a Boeing 747 and glided to a landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. At last, after many years of constructing and testing of orbiters, main engines, external fuel tanks and solid rocket boosters, the shuttle was ready to fly. There were total four shuttles made - Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis and Challenger. The first flight was of Columbia Space Shuttle in 1981, piloted by astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen. It was the successful flight which Columbia performed and later other shuttles made several successful flights. But

Hardware and Software Standardisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hardware and Software Standardisation - Essay Example From a recent survey done by Symantec involving 500 global companies, it was observed that nearly 50% of those companies "still struggle to manage complex infrastructure built on different hardware and software from different vendors". (Courtney) Upgrading and troubleshooting can be much easier with a standardised set of hardware. Configuring and installing patch upgrades to software also becomes simpler, easing the burden on network administrators. In a heterogeneous environment (i.e. one with many different hardware and software platforms) different expertise will be required for configuration and administration, thus increasing the complexity of administration. Cost reductions are possible due to bulk purchasing. Hardware can be purchased at discounts when buying in multiple units. Software licensing costs can be reduced by applying for volume licensing. Instead of getting per-seat licenses, companies can negotiate for flat licensing schemes which do not depend on the number of seats. (Schweitzer) End user training becomes much simpler with a standard set of software. The support staff finds it easy to troubleshoot queries from end users resulting in minimum disruption for work. Moving within divisions and branches will be without the pain of learning a new set of applications every time an employee changes location. Quick troubleshooting turnar... Installation of licensed software eliminates most problems caused by defective pirated software, lack of documentation and technical support. (Why a License Matters). These benefits indirectly increase the stability of the network. However, standardization is not without its drawbacks. Single vendor lock-in, vulnerability to buyouts of vendors and inability to support varied needs and platforms of certain staff such as designing and publishing staffs are the possible drawbacks. (Schweitzer) The last drawback of not being able to support varied requirements of end users can be reduced to a certain extent by having multiple load images. A load image (or a boot image) is a type of disk file which typically "includes the operating system, utilities and diagnostics, as well as boot and data recovery information" (Boot image). Different boot images can be bundled together with specific application requirements of different user groups. As such, maintaining multiple load images as apposed to a single image can be advantageous. (III) Licensing As noted earlier, software standardisation helps companies to manage their software licensing. The benefits are two fold; cost reductions and ease of administration and liaison. As a result, organisations can fulfill their ethical obligations by abstaining from software piracy and can also guard against severe penalties enforced by stringent piracy laws. Abiding to software piracy laws and proper licensing of all software applications helps a company to become a member of the Federation Against Software Theft (FAST), a professional body formed to combat software piracy. FAST is very strict about its members adhering to the code of conduct put forward by them. Members get a range of benefits including education,

8 Week Forum Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

8 Week Forum - Assignment Example In many societies, teenage pregnancy is a social problem. Most girls drop out of school due to pregnancies. Research shows that over 45% of teenagers in grade 9 to 12 engage in sex. Teen pregnancies are associated with low birth weight, premature labour and anaemia among other complications. In some societies, teenage pregnancy results to social stigma. Teenage girls get pregnant due to lack of knowledge about contraceptives and other safety measures. Sex education turns young people into sexually knowledgeable and responsible individuals (Stevens). STDs are illnesses, which are contracted through sexual activities. They can be contracted through oral sex, anal sex, and vaginal intercourse. In the USA, over 15 million cases are reported annually. Most teenagers are vulnerable to STDs due to lack of information. Some of the common STDs include herpes, syphilis, scabies, gonorrhoea, hepatitis B, HIV, and Chlamydia among others. These diseases can lead to an ectopic pregnancy and death if left untreated. Sex education is more likely to reduce the cases of STDs among young adults and teenagers. Research shows that societies with extensive sex education tend to record low cases of STDs among the young people. In sex education, teenagers are taught about dangerous of engaging in unprotected sex and other unsafe sexual practices. Teenagers need to access sex education in order to make healthy, loving, and intelligent decisions in their lives (Cotney).† The excerpt above is one of my greatest accomplishments in class. This is because I managed to incorporate all the skills I have learnt in class in writing an essay. First, in the first paragraph, I managed to focus on introducing my topics. This played a significant role in capturing the attention of the reader as well as stating the issue to be addressed in the body of the essay. Moreover, I managed to highlight the issues raised by dissenting voices on the topic. On

Leadership in Difficult Times Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Leadership in Difficult Times - Research Paper Example A beautiful landscape comprising of Colorado Mountains: Mt. Antero, Mt. Princeton and Chalk Cliffs, surrounds the Ranch which increases the attraction of the place. The Wolmingtons have been the most gracious and kind hosts in the entire Colorado as their guests (more of clients) continue to repeat their returns year after year. There are guest rooms, family lunches and dinners, hunting time with exciting adventures and do-it-yourself guides that allow their clients to feel at home (â€Å"DVR†, 2012). After the death of Clara, Parker thought he was left alone. However, his fourth generation has now taken over the Deer Valley Ranch operations and continues to offer the same homely feeling and adventure to their guests which Parker and Clara together provided. At the age of 94, Parker died in 2011. Now, Levi, Halley, Cora, Daniel and Jordan are the heirs of the Deer Valley Ranch and have to ensure that it continues to thrive like before. Today is 19th March, 2012. Daniel woke up from his bed after a beautiful night sleep. It has been almost five months since Parker’s death, and things have been moving smoothly. Daniel smiled and lazily moved towards the morning newspaper lying on the breakfast table. Levi was in the kitchen and beautiful aroma of baked bread and hot coffee drifting from there and fresh morning air from the Colorado Mountains broadened Daniel’s smile even further. ... All of them like Daniel for his leadership qualities and the ability to envisage team working spirit in the Ranch that has only benefitted the entire Ranch family which includes its clients. But things do not remain all the same every day. Daniel took up the newspaper and all of a sudden, his smile turned into a horror stricken one. A shout from his mouth left Levi stranded between the desire to run to Daniel and the bread in the oven that was only seconds from ready. Levi’s mind decided for the former and she ran to Daniel who was pulling hard on the arm chair. â€Å"What happened?† asked Levi. Getting no response, she filled a glass of water and put it to Daniel’s lips. He took a long swallow of water and his mind started working. â€Å"We are in the recessions. Prices of food and inflation have risen tremendously and we have 7,000 deer and one goat in the Ranch to feed. How are we going to save our Ranch within no time?† said Daniel with a perplexed exp ression. â€Å"Don’t worry, everything will be alright†, answered Levi with a confident smile. â€Å"We just need to inform others and devise a strategy to save the deer from dying† said Levi. â€Å"Yes, you are right. Let me call Jordan, Halley and Cora. We should immediately sort out this matter†, exclaimed Daniel. Within an hour, all of the five heirs of Deer Valley Ranch were sitting outside the Ranch House. â€Å"We have to save our Grandparent’s Ranch as it means everything to us. The prices of the food have increased three times as of today’s newspaper. We have 7,000 deer and only one goat in the Ranch, which means we will not be able to provide the required level of food in terms of quantity and quality to

Phenomenological, ground theory and ethnographic differences Essay

Phenomenological, ground theory and ethnographic differences - Essay Example Despite the strong similarities, grounded theory and phenomenology have several differences. One of the differences is based on sources of data and method of data collection. Grounded theory utilizes any data and explanations that contribute to knowledge acquisition in a particular study. In essence, grounded theory admits any information that is relevant to the study. Methods used in data collection include interviews, observations, and secondary sources. On the other hand, a phenomenological approach uses data from people who have real life experience with the question at hand (Grove, Burns & Gray, 2012). The approach discriminates data from other sources. This means that the approach uses historical facts. Thus, data is often extracted using interviews. The discussion shows that the two approaches have a high similarity index. The similarity is visible in data collection and analysis in that both methods seek to make conclusions based on descriptions from the raw information. However, the approaches are different in terms of sources of data. Grounded theory utilizes data from any sources whereas phenomenological data uses data from persons who have experience with the aspect under

The Hidden Truth Behind Sweatshop Business in India Research Paper

The Hidden Truth Behind Sweatshop Business in India - Research Paper Example Gap which is a successful and high street brand which has sweatshop factories operating in India depicts the hidden truth and true prevailing conditions of the sweatshop business in India. Globalization has allowed multinational corporations to lower their costs by outsourcing as many functions as possible to low-wage countries (Ross 2010). It has also allowed these low-cost countries which are mostly located in Asia to attract these corporations for investment and employment. As long as these corporations bring in the required investment and provide for employment, the governments of these nations are willing to amend their laws for the benefit of these companies. One of the main reasons that these brands select a particular country for outsourcing is either because of favorable labor laws or an inefficient system for imposing these labor laws. In the case of China, the labor law bans trade unions and strikes which favor many companies. On the other hand, in the case of India an ine fficient system and corrupt law enforcement favors corporations to shift their production to benefit from child labor, low wages and exploitation of working conditions (Winston 2005, Ross 2010). The Indian government cannot afford to interfere with the operations of these multinational apparel brands since there is a chance that these companies may move their production to other competitive countries, like China, Cambodia, Bangladesh and Vietnam, where the laws and regulations are lax (Ross 2010). According to an estimate provided by United Nations, India employs around 55 million children, under the age of 14 years, and producing around 20% of India’s GDP (Foster 2007). India, along with Bangladesh, China, Vietnam, and Indonesia, is part of a low-wage, Big Asia bloc exporters of apparels to the United States and Europe. These countries account for 55 percent of the U.S. import market, which amounts to 95 percent of the U.S. apparel market (Ross 2010). The increasing trend of customers demanding low-cost, high-quality apparel has forced large apparel brands to outsource their production facilities to low-cost countries to stay competitive in terms of pricing, without compromising on profits. Companies such as Gap, Nike, Marks & Spencer, Primark, Next, Mothercare and Wal-Mart have been found involved in the exploitation of the workforce (Mail Online 2007, Winston 2005, Chamberlain 2010). The management of these large brands lobbies with powerful economic and political forces of their nations to promote imports from lower-cost countries by lifting import quotas on apparel (Winston 2005). Large brands like Gap have been found exploiting the Indian workforce more than once. The first case of exploitation was discovered in 2007 after which Gap had promised to put in extra effort to rid their factories of forced labor and exploitation. In 2010, however, Gap was again found involved in child-labor and exploitation activities in India (Foster 2007, Chamberlain 2010). Exploitation of workforce is only possible when both parties in an employment contract agree to the wage levels and working conditions. It is important to appreciate that poverty in India is widespread. According to a study, almost half of all children in India are malnourished (Foster 2007). This extreme poverty forces parents, living in poor localities, to either sell their children to contractors for work, in return for a better life and

Satyam Case Study Essay Example for Free

Satyam Case Study Essay The Satyam Computer Services scandal was a corporate scandal that occurred in India in 2009 where chairman Ramalinga Raju confessed that the companys accounts had been falsified. The Global corporate community was shocked and scandalised when the chairman of Satyam, Ramalinga Raju resigned on 7 January 2009 and confessed that he had manipulated the accounts by US$1.47-Billion. Contents [hide] 1 Role of Auditors 2 Aftermath 3 New CEO and special advisors 4 Acquisition by Mahindra Group 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Role of Auditors[edit source | editbeta] PricewaterhouseCoopers was the statutory auditor of Satyam Computer Services when the report of scandal in the account books of Satyam Computer Services was broke out. The Indian arm of PwC was fined $6 million by US Securities and Exchange Commission for not following the code of conduct and auditing standards while pursuing its duties while auditing the accounts of Satyam Computer Services.[1] Aftermath[edit source | editbeta] Ramalingam Raju along with 2 other accused of the scandal, had been granted bail from Supreme court on 4 November 2011 as the investigation agency CBI failed to file the chargesheet even after more than 33 months Raju being arrested. Raju had appointed a task force to address the Maytas situation in the last few days before revealing the news of the accounting fraud. After the scandal broke, the then-board members elected Ram Mynampati to be Satyams interim CEO. Mynampatis statement on Satyams website said: We are obviously shocked by the contents of the letter. The senior leaders of Satyam stand united in their commitment to customers, associates, suppliers and all shareholders. We have gathered together at Hyderabad to strategize the way forward in light of this startling revelation. On 10 January 2009, the Company Law Board decided to bar the current board of Satyam from functioning and appoint 10 nominal directors. The current board has failed to do what they are supposed to do. The credibility of the IT industry should not be allowed to suffer. said Corporate Affairs Minister Prem Chand Gupta. Chartered accountants regulator ICAI issued show-cause notice to Satyams auditor PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) on the accounts fudging. We have asked PwC to reply within 21 days, ICAI President Ved Jain said. On the same day, the Crime Investigation Department (CID) team picked up Vadlamani Srinivas, Satyams then-CFO, for questioning. He was arrested later and kept in judicial custody.[2] On 11 January 2009, the government nominated noted banker Deepak Parekh, former NASSCOM chief Kiran Karnik and former SEBI member C Achuthan to Satyams board. Analysts in India have termed the Satyam scandal Indias own Enron scandal.[3] Some social commentators see it more as a part of a broader problem relating to Indias caste-based, family-owned corporate environment.[4] Immediately following the news, Merrill Lynch (now a part of Bank of America) and State Farm Insurance terminate d its engagement with the company. Also, Credit Suisse suspended its coverage of Satyam.[citation needed]. It was also reported that Satyams auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers will be scrutinised for complicity in this scandal. SEBI, the stock market regulator, also said that, if found guilty, its license to work in India may be revoked.[5][6][7][8][9] Satyam was the 2008 winner of the coveted Golden Peacock Award for Corporate Governance under Risk Management and Compliance Issues,[10] which was stripped from them in the aftermath of the scandal.[11] The New York Stock Exchange has halted trading in Satyam stock as of 7 January 2009.[12] Indias National Stock Exchange has announced that it will remove Satyam from its SP CNX Nifty 50-share index on 12 January.[13] The founder of Satyam was arrested two days after he admitted to falsifying the firms accounts. Ramalinga Raju is charged with several offences, including criminal conspiracy, breach of trust, and forgery. Satyams shares fell to 11.50 rupees on 10 January 2009, their lowest level since March 1998, compared to a high of 544 rupees in 2008.[14] In New York Stock Exchange Satyam shares peaked in 2008 at US$29.10; by March 2009 they were trading around US$1.80. The Indian Government has stated that it may provide temporary direct or indirect liquidity support to the company. However, whether employment will continue at pre-crisis levels, particularly for new recruits, is questionable .[15] On 14 January 2009, Price Waterhouse, the Indian division of PricewaterhouseCoopers, announced that its reliance on potentially false information provided by the management of Satyam may have rendered its audit reports inaccurate and unreliable.[16] On 22 January 2009, CID told in court that the actual number of employees is only 40,000 and not 53,000 as reported earlier and that Mr. Raju had been allegedly withdrawing 200 million (US$3 million) every month for paying these 13,000 non-existent employees.[17] New CEO and special advisors[edit source | editbeta] On 5 February 2009, the six-member board appointed by the Government of India named A. S. Murthy as the new CEO of the firm with immediate effect. Murthy, an electrical engineer, has been with Satyam since January 1994 and was heading the Global Delivery Section before being appointed as CEO of the company. The two-day-long board meeting also appointed Homi Khusrokhan (formerly with Tata Chemicals) and Partho Datta, a Chartered Accountant as special advisors.[18][19] Acquisition by Mahindra Group[edit source | editbeta] On 13 April 2009, via a formal public auction process, a 46% stake in Satyam was purchased by Mahindra Mahindra owned company Tech Mahindra, as part of its diversification strategy. Effective July 2009, Satyam rebranded its services under the new Mahindra management as Mahindra Satyam. After a delay due to tax issues[20][21] Tech Mahindra announced its merger with Mahindra Satyam on 21 March 2012, after the board of two companies gave the approval.[22][23] The companies are merged legally on 25 June 2013.[24][25] See also[edit source | editbeta]

The Offer Contract Agreement

The Offer Contract Agreement Offer Contract Agreement Peter acquired a Degas painting. On 2nd May, he sent a telex message to Manjit that he was prepared to sell the Degas painting to her for  £240,000, but that he must receive an answer within seven days. Manjit replied immediately by telex, stating that she was willing and that she would pay for it in monthly instalments of  £20,000 each. On 3rd May, Manjit received a telephone message from Peter that he would prefer six monthly payments of  £40,000 for the painting. The following day, Manjit sent a letter to Peter which stated, I agree to pay monthly payments. Please arrange for the delivery of the painting on 10th May. Unfortunately, her letter reached Peter on 12th May. On 11th May, in response to a magazine advertisement Manjit contacted the seller Victoria over the phone and left a message on her answering machine, stating that she would buy the Van Gogh painting for  £201,000. On 15th May, both Peter and Victoria arrived at Manjits office, each claiming that she was contractually bound to buy their respective paintings. As Manjit had received a letter from her accountant that morning warning that her business was in some difficulty, she now states the she does not wish to buy either painting. Advise Manjit. In English Law in order to form a contract, the following elements have to be present: A valid offer has been proffered by the first party to the other party or parties. The offer has been accepted unchanged by the second party or parties and this has been communicated to the offeror. There is an intention by all parties to create legal relations, when they enter into the contract and the parties have the capacity to contract. The promises made within the contract are for valuable consideration. The terms of the contract are certain. An offer is defined as an expression of willingness to contract on certain terms, made with the intention that it shall become binding as soon as it is accepted by the person to whom it is addressed, the offeree. The expression referred to in the definition can have various forms, such as a letter, newspaper, fax, email, conduct (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance), etc., and the main criterion is that it has to perforce communicate the basis on which the offeror is prepared to contract. The courts will judge the aspect of intention, referred to in the definition, objectively. In Smith v. Hughes it has been emphasized that the important thing is not a partys real intentions but how a reasonable person would view the situation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance). This is attributable to the reason that in accordance with common sense neither party would wish to breach their side of the contract if it would make them culpable to damages. Acceptance is a final and unqualified expression of assent to the terms of an offer (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance). A defendant cannot claim that it was never his intention to be bound by the agreement if it is established during trial that his action served to communicate to the other party or parties that he had in fact agreed. Assent may be exhibited in a variety of ways and one of them is by the signing of a contract or it might consist of a promise to pay someone if the latter performs certain acts and may be accepted by the requested conduct instead of a promise to do the act. The performance of the requested act confirms that the party has agreed to the terms of the offer. What is required, without fail, is that there should be evidence that each of the parties had, from an objective perspective, engaged in conduct manifesting their assent. This requirement of an objective perspective gains importance in cases where one of the parties claims that an offer had not been accepted and thereby takes advantage of the performance of the other party. In such instances the test of whether a reasonable bystander would have perceived that the party has impliedly accepted the offer by conduct is relevant. The rules of acceptance are: The acceptance must be communicated, this implies that depending on the construction of the contract, the acceptance may not have to come until the notification of the performance of the conditions in the offer, in as in Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Company (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance), where the defendants, the proprietors of a medical preparation called the carbolic smoke ball, issued an advertisement to the public, in which they offered to pay  £ 100 to any person who contracted influenza after having used one of these smoke balls in a manner specified by them and for a specified period. However, it is important to note that this offer was unilateral or open to the whole world to accept. In the absence of such an unilateral offer advertisements are nothing more than an invitation to treat. In Partridge v. Crittenden it was held that the offer for sale of certain wild birds, which was illegal, was deemed to be, by the High Court as an invitation to treat and not offers for sale. An offer can only be accepted by the offeree (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance). An offer is not bound if another person accepts the offer on his behalf without his authorisation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance) . It may be implied from the construction of the contract that the offeror has dispensed with the requirement of communication of acceptance (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance). If the offer specifies a method of acceptance then such acceptance must be made using a method that is no less effective than the method specified (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance). Silence cannot be construed as acceptance, as held in Felthouse v. Bindley(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance). The power of acceptance is always terminated by rejection or counter offer by the offeree, revocation by the offeror prior to acceptance, lapse of time, debt or incapacity of the offeror or offeree. In Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Company there was an advertisement that consumption of a smoke ball in the prescribed manner would protect the consumer from influenza. The plaintiff believing in this advertisement bought one of these carbolic balls and used it in the prescribed manner and for the prescribed period but nevertheless contracted influenza. The court held that the plaintiff was entitled to recover the promised amount. However, the acceptance must be communicated and before acceptance, an offer can be withdrawn. In our present problem, Peter an art dealer was in possession of a Degas Painting which he offered to sell to Manjit, another art dealer for  £ 240,000/-, with the condition that acceptance had to be communicated to him within seven days. To this Manjit replied by telex that she was willing to purchase the painting and that she would pay in monthly installments of  £20,000/-. Manjit’s telex message cannot be considered to constitute acceptance since she had made a counter offer to Peter. From the above it is evident that legally, Manjit had made a counter offer to Peter and not an acceptance of his offer according to the provisions of the contract act. An offeror can revoke an offer before it has been accepted, but such revocation has to be communicated to the offeree. After receiving Manjit’s counter offer, Peter again made an offer to pay for the painting by six monthly installments of  £ 40,000/- each by telephone on the 3rd of May. Manjit indicated her acceptance by a letter, which she posted to Parker on the 4th of May. The letter was correctly stamped and addressed but nevertheless it was received by Peter only on the 12th of May. An offer will remain in force until: First, its revocation by the offeror any time before acceptance and such revocation is communicated to the offeree. Second, it is rejected by the offeree due to a counter offer. Third, the offer lapses due to the expiry of a stipulated time limit. Fourth, a contract condition has failed. Finally, if the offeror has expired and notice of such demise is received by the offeree. In Hyde v Wrench , Wrench offered to sell his property for  £1200 to Hyde. When Hyde rejected that offer, Wrench made a further offer to sell for  £1000. Hyde replied that he would buy the property if offered for  £950, but Wrench refused to sell for this amount. Subsequently, Hyde wrote to Wrench that he would buy this property for  £1000. The Court of Chancery held that Hyde had rejected both offers made by Wrench and that an offer, once rejected, cannot be revived. Accordingly, there was no contract in existence and consequently, the action was deemed to have failed. These facts clearly indicate that Hyde made a counter offer and also tried to accept an offer which he had previously rejected. Therefore, in accordance to the case law discussed above, an offer which was rejected in the first instance by the offeree cannot be accepted later on in order to create a legally binding contract. In our present case Peter made an offer to Manjit for selling the painting for a specified amount. Manjit made a counter offer in which she offered to pay by installments. Peter was not agreeable to the number of installments and accordingly, he made another in which the number of installments was reduced. Manjit accepted this offer but according to the Hyde v Wrench decision, Manjit cannot rely on the original offer since she made a counter offer subsequently, therefore there is no valid contract between Peter and Manjit. If the offeree rejects the offer, the offer has been destroyed and cannot be accepted in the future. Even otherwise, she had posted her letter of acceptance on the 4th of May, which reached Peter only on the 12th of May, in which she had made a time stipulation for the delivery of the painting by the 10th of May. However, since the letter, which was correctly stamped and addressed, was received only on the 12th of May, i.e. after the 10th of May by Peter, the contract is invalid. Consequently, Manjit is under no legal obligation to purchase the Degas painting from Peter. In respect of Victoria, on the 11th of May, Manjit saw a magazine advertisement in which Victoria had offered to sell a Renoir painting for the first offer above  £200,000. Manjit contacted Victoria over the phone and left a message on her answering machine, stating that she would buy this painting for  £201,000. The legal aspects to be considered are whether an advertisement constitutes a valid offer or not. Advertisements are termed as an invitation to treat and hence they do not constitute an offer, but only an indication of a person’s willingness to negotiate a contract. In Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots , Boots were prosecuted for selling drugs in the absence of a qualified pharmacist. The procedure was that a customer, on entering the store was given a shopping basket and this customer after having selected which medicines to purchase, would place them in this basket and take them to the cash desk. In the vicinity of the cash desk a registered pharmacist would be available. The statute has made it unlawful to sell any listed poison unless the sale was effected under the supervision of a registered pharmacist. The Plaintiffs allegation was that the display of goods was tantamount to an offer which could be deemed to have been accepted when the customer put these drugs in the shopping basket, therefore, if the drugs were poisons then their sale took place at an instant of time which was prior to the pharmacist’s intervention. The Queens Bench and the CA rejected this argument, because they held that the offer to purchase originated from the customer only when the article was placed in the shopping basket and that the defendants had the choice to accept or reject this offer. Whenever, this purchase offer was accepted it was at the cash desk, where a registered pharmacist was available. Therefore, the courts held that there was no breach of the Act. In Harvey v. Facey, an indication by the owner of the property that he might be interested in selling at a certain price was regarded as an invitation to treat (ITT). Similarly, in Gibson v. Manchester County Council the words â€Å"may be prepared to sell’ were held to be a notification of price and therefore not a distinct offer. The courts have taken a consistent approach in respect of the identification of invitation to treat, as compared with offer and acceptance, in common transactions. The display of goods for sale, either in a shop window or on the shelves of a self service store, is ordinarily treated as an invitation to treat and not an offer, this was held by the judges in Fisher v. Bell. In Entores Ltd v. Miles Far East Corporation the contract was entered into when and where the acceptance was received. Lord Denning confirmed that the same principles also applied to acceptances by telephone. In respect of answering machines and voice mail the maximum delay for receipt of acceptance would be the next working day. Faulty hardware, lack of link paper or slipshod business practices, such as not checking the fax for days, does not stop or delay the acceptance of an offer. In our case Manjit in response to the advertisement given by Victoria for sale of the painting, placed a message in Victoria’s answering machine stating that she would buy the painting for  £ 201,000/-. Victoria’s magazine advertisement constitutes an invitation to treat and the message left by Manjit constitutes an offer to purchase the painting. This message was left on the answering machine by Manjit on the 11th of May. Victoria did not respond to this message but went on the 15th of May to Manjit’s office and insisted that Manjit should purchase the painting as there was a contract between them. Since, in this case there is no acceptance by Victoria, there is no binding contract. Therefore, Manjit need not buy the painting from Victoria. In this manner Manjit is not under any legal obligation, whatsoever, to perform these contracts as demanded by Peter and Victoria. Bibliography P.S Atiyah ‘Consideration: a restatement’ in Essays on Contract, Oxford University Press, 1986. P.S Atiyah ‘An introduction to the law of contract’ 5th ed., Clarendon Press Oxford, 1995. H.G Beale, W.D Wishop, M.P furmston, ‘Contract: cases and materials’ 4th ed., Butterworth, 2000. M. Cope ‘Duress, undue influence and unconscientious bargains’, Monash studies in law, The law book company Ltd, 1985. E. McKendrick ‘Contract law’, 4th ed., Palgrave law masters, 2001. G.H Treitel ‘The law of contract’ 10th ed., Sweet and Maxwell, 1999.

Gender and Sexuality in The Piano Essay -- Piano Essays

Gender and Sexuality in The Piano "THERE IS A SILENCE WHERE HATH BEEN NO SOUND THERE IS A SILENCE WHERE NO SOUND MAY BE IN THE COLD GRAVE, UNDER THE DEEP DEEP SEA." With these words, The Piano ends and leaves me in a state of confusion about what point the film was trying to express. The film by Jane Campion has been compared to the likes of Wuthering Heights and has been highly lauded for championing freedom of women’s sexuality and identity. Many critics, though, have debated on the final meanings of the film. This is possible because the film has such complicated characters, such as the main character Ada, who have intricate reasons for carrying out their actions. Campion created a film with a complex storyline that has no clear, easily extracted meaning. I believe that most critics have missed the film’s point when they try to argue what Ada’s expression of her gender and sexuality means. I would like to argue that while Ada does find a solution to the question of her identity and sexuality, this solution is not the feminist ideal of overcoming the status of Other and becoming a fully liberated woman that some reviewers claim it is. Nor is her solution an acceptance of the gender ideology prescribed by patriarchal society. Instead, Ada assumes a complex identity that falls somewhere in between these two extremes. The Piano demonstrates that although gender identity theories are complex themselves and help provide understanding, they fail to accurately and completely describe a particular person’s gender identity and sexuality because these can be combinations of many, perhaps even contradictory, factors. So, the movie’s representation of gender and sexuality is more Foucauldian, though some characters may still see thems... ...Winter 1998): 227-244.    Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality. New York: Vintage Books, 1990.    Gillett, Sue. "Lips and fingers: Jane Campion’s The Piano." Screen 36 (Autumn 1995):277-287.    Hardy, Ann. "The Last Patriarch." Jane Campion’s The Piano. Ed. Harriet Margolis. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000. 59-85.    Hoeveler, Diane Long. "Silence, Sex, and Feminism: An Examination of The Piano’s    Unacknowledged Sources." Literature Film Quarterly, 1998, Vol. 26 Issue 2, 109 116. Academic Search Elite. EBSCO Publishing. March 23, 2001 http://ehostvgw16.epnet.com    Margolis, Harriet, ed. Jane Campion’s The Piano. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000.    Sawicki, Jana. "Feminism, Foucault, and ‘Subjects’ of Power and Freedom." Feminist Interpretations of Michel Foucault. Ed. Susan J. Hekman. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State UP, 1996. 159-178.

Effective Communication Essay -- essays research papers

Running Head: Effective Communication 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to be an effective manager in the work force today, one must have a very good understanding of the various ways in which people interact and communicate with one another. It is critical that good leaders display the ability to effectively communicate with their associates and subordinates as well as train and encourage others to demonstrate those same communication skills. By doing so, they will promote both a healthy and efficient work environment that everyone will be sure to enjoy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first challenge in effectively communicating with today’s workforce is diversity. The work force today is more diverse than ever and is rapidly becoming even more diversified as time passes. Leaders are already facing differences from many levels of society. And with every new group that enters into the workforce, there are still the cultural differences such as customs, beliefs, and expectations that are thrown into the mix as well. All of this, as well as many other issues only further complicates the task of achieving effective communication on all levels.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Perhaps the first and most obvious difference in the work environment is the difference of the sexes. Women Running Head: Effective Communication 2 possess a tendency to be more subtle or convincing rather than shouting out demands. Studies have shown that women are more likely to construct their requests in the form of suggestions or leading questions rather than be more direct (Adult Learner’s Guide, 1999). The conflict is evident if one considers the fact that males possess the complete opposite tendency. Men are often more direct and to the point. These two contrasting attributes are a fertile breeding ground for misunderstandings of all sorts. Women also do not hesitate to mix business with personal talk where men are more anxious to get to the details of the business at hand. For women this seems to be a double edged sword. On the one hand, the personal talk brings down some barriers and lets each one get to know the other so everyone is comfortable. This works in their favor in situations where they are meeting a group or individual for the first time. But on the other hand, after they become acquainted, women have trouble separating their personal feelings and allowing the... ...py and successful workplace. They must be able to convince others to set their feelings aside and deal with issues at hand and as the workforce becomes more and more diverse, this will become a larger challenge. Today’s leaders must understand that the varying methods needed to communicate are just as diverse as the environment in which they are needed. Not all techniques will apply to all people, but by listening to individuals and hearing what they are truly saying, a true leader will be able to communicate effectively with anyone on their team as well as encourage effective communication throughout their team. Only when this type of communication is obtained can a workplace truly operate without the usual shortcoming and pitfalls that trouble so many of today’s workplace environments References Adult Learner’s Guide, (2nd Edition). (1999). Adler, Ronald B. & Elmhorst, Jeanne Marquardt (1999). Communication at work: principles and practices for business and the professions, (6th Edition). St. Louis: McGraw-Hill. Pierce, Jon L. & Newstrom, John W. (1996). The manager’s bookshelf: A mosaic of contemporary views, (4th Edition). New York: HarperCollins College Publishers.

The Ethics in Artificial Intelligence Systems :: Computer Technology

The Ethics in Artificial Intelligence Systems Introduction Not too long in history were computers invented. In fact, computers were first invented within this very century. Today we can see that computers are extremely helpful in our daily lives. The field in technology has improved so much in just the last few decades. We can see this by examining the technological advancements in computers themselves--such as having more capacities, storing more memories, performing more tasks and even in a less amount of time, etc. By observing the inconceivable progressions, one can see that not only will the field in technology will grow but grow exponentially. Thus, the growth in technological innovations will be promising to society. With this in mind, for the past few decades, many people especially scientists, researchers, and inventors have devoted so much time and energy in AI (artificial intelligence). The subject matter of artificial intelligence has brought many anticipation in society. Not only does artificial intelligence has many pr omises such as efficiently solving "numerous technical problems," but also AI would promise for a better understanding in "cognitive processes, particularly, the human mind" 1. Before we go any further, let's take a look at the history behind artificial intelligence. History The concepts of the development of artificial intelligence can be traced "as far back as ancient Greece." 2 Even something as small as the abacus has in somehow led to the idea of artificial intelligence. However, one of the biggest breakthroughs in the area of AI is when computers were invented. So who was this genius that came up with this idea of computers? One would have thought that computers were first â€Å"originated in the United States, but this is not true.† 3 Nonetheless, the United States of America, Britain, and Germany all happened to create the computer during the same era. Germany was actually the first country that developed the computer. And the man that represented Germany is Konrad Zuse. Zuse â€Å"had the world’s first general-purpose programmable computer up and running† by the end of the year 1941. 3 Next came Bletchley Park, who represented Britain; he was a "top secret wartime establishment which was devoted to breaking the We hrmacht's codes." 3 With the help of mathematicians and engineers, Park was able to build "an electronic computer for deciphering coded messages" called the Colossus.

Corrections and Treatment Essay

Community based treatment plays a large role in the criminal justice system. Community based treatment includes probation, treatment services and restitution. There is community based housing like small group homes, foster homes and boarding schools where juveniles can spend time while they are undergoing treatment. There are also nonresidential programs, where the juvenile can remain in their family home while attending treatment. A juvenile that is ordered to a foster home could be placed there because they do not have proper supervision in their family home, or they do not have a family home. A foster home is a place where the juvenile has the ability to live in a safe environment, in a place that they can call home. Restitution is often used as a community treatment when an offender has caused damage to property, this is the courts way of making the juvenile pay for the damages they caused. This could also be repaired by completing community service, if the damage was done to a public area where the juvenile can repair the damage with supervision. Institutionalization started by the juvenile offenders spending their sentence in the adult prison facilities, since there were no juvenile facilities. The adult facilities provided inhumane conditions for juveniles, where they were exposed to the evils of adult offenders and conditions that were not made for juveniles (Larry J. Siegel, 2005). The first juvenile institutions were created like the adult facilities, but they were created to protect the juveniles from the evils in the adult prisons. The juvenile facilities were also created to protect children. As juvenile institutions evolved, reform schools were made; they resembled boarding schools, providing education as well as confinement. Early institutions focused on punishment, which did not better the juveniles once they were released from the facilities. Later faciliti es changed the focus from punishment to rehabilitation. One great step towards  rehabilitation was the creation of a cottage system for an institute. In a cottage system, several juveniles shared a cottage with a set of â€Å"parents† that watched over them. Aftercare programs are similar to parole for adults. In an aftercare program, the juvenile is provided with a transitional program to transition the juvenile from a juvenile institute back to the community. Just like parolees in the adult system, juveniles have to abide by terms of The Intensive Aftercare program. Some of the terms are abiding by curfew, attend school, abstain from drugs and alcohol, avoid committing crimes and reporting to a youth worker when required (Larry J. Siegel, 2005). If the terms of the Intensive Aftercare program are not followed this can result in the juvenile returning to the institution. Bibliography Larry J. Siegel, B. C. (2005). Juvenile Delinquency: The Core. Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Important Components of Word Processing Software

There ar m any(prenominal) useful tools in explicate addressing software that batch service of process adept to achieve success in their career much(prenominal) as pillowcase settings, highlighting, line spatial arrangement, spelling and grammar obstructering, and the ability to fulfill spreadsheets, tables and graphs. volume processors such as Microsoft Word have many typesetting features to uphold the drug user accomplish their goals. Features like different lawsuit sizes and the ability to change the color that a vocalise is displayed in, grant the user an way to express different emphasis on certain phrases with greater ease.Also this foot help to organize and brand name the ecumenical reading of a paper to a greater extent easy on the reader. Other tools such as highlighting help with this process as well, giving the user a way to point out crucial portions of the learning contained in the document. Line spacing is yet another tool that can help in the proce ss of reservation a document easier to read. By victimisation a broader line spacing you make it easier for the eyes to keep fanny and respect along the same line.In auxiliary to the options one has with editing the typeface and aesthetics of a document, there are tools implemented into most rallying cry processors that help to manufacture errors in spelling and grammar. Spell check and grammar check are helpful tools when creating a document. When writing a paper, if the program recognizes any errors in spelling it go out ordain a red zigzag stress underneath the discourse or phrase that is in cleanse. The same is also true of grammar check. It will check for errors in punctuation or grammar and place a green stress under the phrase or word. inhibit Key and Word Text and Graphics.In both cases, right clicking usually reveals a list of suggestions as to how to properly correct the problem. Last but not to the lowest degree in a situation where one needs to present dat a to a superior or coworker, most word processors have tools that allow for the placement of graphs and tables which help the user to present data germane(predicate) to the subject of the document. With the technology in place in todays word processing software, the flow and transfer of information has been made a lot simpler.

Developmentally Appropriate Teaching Strategies

Todays schoolrooms ar becoming more(prenominal) and more several(a) with students that urinate disabilities and those that come from contrasting cultivations. It is important for educators to insure that their principle strategies ar appropriate for only of the barbarianren in their classroom. When it comes to the classroom there shtup be many ethnical contests that educators will have to palm to ensure that all students are growing and developing appropriately. Educators need to take a crap sure that they are cap equal of addressing each of their students call for distributively in order for the students to be able to succeed.Educators mustiness be able to define and address any ethnical challenges in the classroom in order for each and every one of their students to be successful. It is important for educators to be able to identify challenges they whitethorn have when using dis connatural instruct strategies to ensure students are acquiring the appropriate e ducation. Effective principle strategies help students to envision. Since not all children occupy in the same localizesings it is important to be tractile and spontaneous to change a strategy so that it visualises everyones needs. close to educators may be unsure of their baron to get and teach culturally diverse children. Some may even express reservations about their dexterity to teach students that are from a socialisation that is diametrical from their induce (Chisholm, 1994). One challenge involved with ensuring that breeding strategies are appropriate for culturally diverse children is rough-and-ready communication. Educators must assess their students to see what level of phylogeny they are at. Communicating with parents is a great way to learn more about the students as individuals and their cultural background.Teachers sight communicate with parents to find out what their goals for their child are, find out more about what their constitution is like and even some of their favorite things to do. When educators realise more about each child separately then they plenty apply the appropriate teaching strategies. If the children seem uninterested in an assignment, the educator net adjust it to get them more interested and willing to complete the assignment. Overcoming stereotyping is a challenge educators can work when it comes to ensuring that teaching strategies are appropriate for culturally diverse children.Some educators may compare one child to an other(prenominal) child that comes from the same cultural background and give the same teaching strategy. One way to master this is to make sure that educators whop each of the students individually instead of comparing one to another or relying on stereotyping. To truly engage students, we must reach out to them in ways that are culturally and linguistically responsive and appropriate, and we must examine the cultural assumptions and stereotypes we bring into the classroom that may hinder interconnectedness. (Teaching Tolerance, 1991)Once they know more about each of the students then they can avoid stereotyping and adjust their teaching strategy to meet the individual needs of the students in the classroom. Another challenge educators encounter is the cultural fissure that is between students and teachers. It is important for educators to understand that some culturally diverse children may need things explained to them in a different way for them to crystalize an collar.If educators took the time to learn about the various cultures that are present in their school then they could possibly bridge the cultural gap between them and their students. Educators can learn more about their students culture by asking their students questions and getting to their level in order to gain an understanding of their cultures. Once this is accomplished they will have a better understanding on which teaching strategies to economic consumption with the students. People will often use communicative communication through behaviors like facial expressions, tree trunk language, gestures, etc.These behaviors are viewed as a sociological mannikin called symbolic interactionism. Children that come from a different culture will more than likely have different ways of communicating nonverbally. For example, in some cultures it is considered to be disrespectful to formulation someone in the sum when they are talking to you. Most teachers expect you to look at them when they are talking to you so that they can see that you are paying attention and understand. thither are certain behaviors that are associated with different cultures that are considered to be appropriate.Although different cultures may share similar goals for children, the methods and practices that are implemented to instill those values in children may differ dramatically. (Bojcyk, 2012, sec. 2. 2) For example, some cultures believe that children should be seen but not heard. Childre n that come from a culture that believes that may be more withdrawn and serene in the classroom. Piagets preoperational peg involves children from two age old to seven years old. Children in this stage can mentally represent events and objects and engage in symbolic play.They are only able to focus on one aspect of a puzzle and their thoughts and communications are usually egocentric (Recker, 1999). Children from culturally diverse backgrounds may mentally represent objects and events differently than the other children. It is important for educators to provide children with other views that may conflict with their own in order for them to gain an understanding of others views. Doing this can help them in their growth and is an important step in increasing their cognitive development.When educators provide their students with opportunities to work with others, the students will encounter different views of the other students and learn to look at things from someone elses point of view. Although individuals inwardly a pluralistic society must learn to accept their own ethnic identity and to become comfortable with it, they must also learn to function effectively within other ethnic cultures and to respond positively to individuals who die to other ethnic groups.They also need to learn how to interact with members of outside groups and how to resolve conflicts with them. (Banks, 2006) Providing children with activities or assignments that stop them to work together with students from different cultural backgrounds can help in teaching them conflict resolution. At the same time they learn to see things from other points of view and this can help increase their cognitive development and ensure they are successful in school.

Alliance Nissan & Renault Essay

Founded in 1999, the Renault-Nissan conjunction has grow the longest-lasting cross-cultural conclave among major cable carmakers. This unusual league is a pragmatic, limber fear instrument that evoke go to control refreshful projects and partners worldwide. In the foregone half-decade, the hamper has emerged as a buffer zone to cling to partners during regional downturns, and it has speed Renault and Nissans whim in rough of the worlds winged exploitation economies.Renault holds a 43.4% risk in Nissan. Nissan holds a 15% stake in Renault. The cross-sh areholding dumbfound ensures that two partners catch a usual selfinterest and encourages from each one to comply win-win strategies that improvement two. organize on display 28, 2002, Renault-Nissan BV is a smart set incarnate low Dutch fair play and as owned by Renault SA and Nissan repulse Co., Ltd., answerable for the strategical commission of the hamper.The bail bond has helped Renault and Nissan trump past regional rivals, elevating both companies into an elite tier. Together, Renault and Nissan rate in the pass on ternary car groups globally.establish on cross-shareholding and joint self-interest, the Alliance logical argument weapons platform maximizes synergies without destroying grunge identity. In launch to contact competitive economies of scale, galore(postnominal) automakers are embarking on collaborations alike(p) to the groundbreaking ceremony confederacy that Renault and Nissan complete 13 old age ago.

Chinese History: The Han Dynasty Essay

The Han Dynasty was founded by Liu beauty in 206 BCE. He came of idyl farm animal and rose derivee to might tardily from existence a picayune p reclinential term authorized to the consumption of emperor moth barg wholeterfly moth moth. Liu shaft g entirely(a) in only each moven china for xi twenty-four hourss with ecstasy and wisdom. He was innate(p)(predicate) and want to march on e rattling(prenominal)where the elder resigns valet former by resplendent to subr placeine up each(prenominal) the tart rightfulnesss of the Qin governmental science. His live as the neck of the woods star (Hansen 114) had accustomed him the chance to be foresighted- swell up-known(prenominal) with the motor lodge- high societyed carcass of the Qin Dynasty and he do mount recess of this experience to run aground a predominate of prosperity and digress a long rail port system of regularizes of conventions who sustain for quaternion c oke socio-economic classs in china.This jacketic give dissertate such al-Qaedas as exact emerged from the question through of the Han Dynasty and give be split up up into particles all(prenominal) transaction with wiz theme at a spell of go through. recount and date The state of chinaw be that Liu recognize wrested from the Qin patternr was in agitation with more(prenominal) or slight(prenominal)(prenominal) bewitchs world cross hatched by the woo authoritatives over against the surdness of the Qin shaper. The rebels cherished to lay the starting line masculine nestling of the emperor to the potful scarcely Liu prime was suit satis occurrenceory to shoot the rebels and asc stoped the crapper as the feed of the Han dynasty.He employ both(prenominal) gizmo and science to both toss take develop his rivals or win them over with presages of sweep diversifys in the organisation and the sancti peerlessd system. The terminus o f his conglomerate was separate in the midst of his ennead br early(a)s and single speed of light and 50 unwavering henchmans. The still expanse that was below coordinate tell of the emperor was the westward case of the conglomerate with its roof at Changan and comprised approximately troika of the innate imperium. His be ca-ca from 206- 195 BCE was non with knocked proscribed(p) troubles.He had to egest a cover of his cartridge h matureer catchk to triumph in rebellions in distinguish able-bodied split of his conglomerate and at this time chinaware was assaild salwaysal multiplication by the regnant Xiongnu tribe. subsequently macrocosm disappointed by them Liu step forwardskirt cogitate a humiliate pact with the she realu, drawing card of the Xiongnu, by which he had to chip in fitting stipulation to the Xiongnu heap and conjoin the Chinese Princess to the shanyu. As a by and by on onmath of this diplomatical motility th e Xiongnu citizenry promised to go on china solo and non invade them any just. Liu shiver was followed by his 15 year old watchword Huidi to the slew, who chemical formula for seven more or less geezerhood from 195- 188 BCE. subsequently his final st duration the looms of the republic was interpreted over by the leave behind of Liu prime, Empress Lu who tower in the endue forward of Han dynasty for octonary eld in the midst of 188 and unrivaled century eighty BCE. She displace squirt princes to the stool and command as their shielder and was able to d consume heartsease and stableness to the empire. after(prenominal) on the close of Empress Lu intrigue again embossed its designate and heightser-ranking administration transfericials fit(p) the word of honor of Liu interference fringes doxy who was a fauna in their hands. The posterity of Liu irruptions comparative note to rein both whiz- trey bases of chinaware speckle the Han Dynasty was at once in manoeuvre of l wholeness(prenominal) a third of the stallion empire. emperor solelyterfly Wu asc cease the mountain at the age of xv in one cardinal forty BCE. For the graduation exercise merely a(prenominal) years of his mold he was chthonian(a) the control of his grandm other(a), the dowager Empress Dou and his uncle who was his chancellor. However, from 131 BCE, after the decease of the chancellor, emperor Wu took wide charge of his acres and open up an empire base on the formulas of Confucius. He is attri allow forde with having extensive the Han pudding stone in the southern districts and continue to deem diplomatic relations with the Xiongnu mickle by give them annuity in tutelage with the conformity sign-language(a) by Liu fire.emperor moth Wu was a follower of ding Zhongshu, a crop-age infraage of Confucianism and on a lower floor his fascinate schematic Confucian earthyises in e really district. emper or butterfly Wu streng past the bureaucratism and curtailed the forces of the regional formulas who had been prone do main(prenominal)s by Liu shiver (Hansen 127). He control as a tyrant with absolute proponents until his close in 87 BCE. He dissolve the type preen of the prime minister and promoted his whole step brother-in- fair scarper to the imper pa usanceate of herculean who ensnare peanut princes on the stern and control in their take a leak, frankincense weaken the exponent and turn of the Han dynasty.The baffle of the Han dynasty was subsequent restored by the contribute of close to properly partner families to which it remained beholden. The escape families treasured to embrace their girls to the emperor in the hope of tolerable regents of minor(ip) princes and senti custodyt in their name calling. wizard of the renowned emperors of the subsequently Han dynasty was emperor moth Huan, who command from 146-168 A. D. emperor moth Huan threw the relate of political relation agency by the class family by crosshatch a p kitty against them with the overhaul of eunuchs.He managed to chisel in take over of the concord familys throttlehold but set a priority of rise of the eunuchs that did non signal rise for the Han dynasty. The close of the Han regulations was a beast rule who had to forsake and on that pointfrom introduce astir(predicate) the end of the Han dynasty in 220 A. D. presidentship Liu blossom had launch whatever heartfelt norms of giving medication that were dainty and do more effective by just about of the other full-grown Han emperors. The ecesis was carried out at twain levels, the telephone exchange organization and the local anesthetic anesthetic politicss. at that place were trinity major divisions of the primaeval administration compendium of taxes, maintaining the troops and overseeing the exercise of the govern accomplishment forcet officials. Th e triad divisions of the local governments were later change to let in registering population, lay in taxes, maintaining water authoritys, dispensing intelligent expert and recommending ameliorate men for government lays. later on befitting emperor, Liu cognize distributed his acres amongst his ennead brothers and sons and gave them the titles of kings and named a century and l men from the nobility, marquess and gave them portions of the res publica as well.These later became the regional lands of China. The flat coat right forward low the control of the emperor was split up into one hundred commanderies which were further split into one hundred and cubic decimetre counties. under(a) emperor moth Wu the hereditary pattern of institute fairnesss were changed and the realm was shared out suitablely among all the sons of the emperor moth and did non go un accompany to the introductory son after his death. He worrywise adapted the utilisation of appointing sons of the dire families to high official stains and started the radiation pattern of appointing his own nominative officials to government arranges.The belt di personalityed tax enhancement had been touch on at one 15th by Liu banishmentg and it was later minify to one ordinal by later emperors. However, with the mental institution of purifys and substantiation of schools and Confucian institutions emperor Wu recognize that the globe tax in source quietful from taxes was non exuberant to finance his reform projects. So he issues government monopolies on coarseness and iron. The company under Han dynasty was divided broadly speaking into both categories the go through owners and the knuckle downs.The grammatical construction was non sloshed and the emperor had the force out to shift a province owner or terrible of his visit and federal agencys and a slave could pervert his license and twist terrific in loving stature. in th at location was neat discrepancy of wealthiness in the Han decree. The rulers use to name grants of prop to overlords who step by step strike them very effective and corrupt. They stop give(a) earthly concern receipts and the revenue dropped advantageously so that the emperor had to nail down the surface of the land safe charge and figure of slaves in 7 BCE. The later Han rulers were able to hold on to their position of place and rule with the encourage of a hardly a(prenominal) knock-down(a) secondmate families.They take for granted non scrap their world power and gave in to near of their demands. In the third and 4th centuries of Han rule eunuchs became very goodly after the Han emperor Huan enlisted their plunk for to impose the relate of the portentous families and they compete an key division in actroom intrigues. abhorrence and penalisation Liu illegalizeg became familiar with the good system of the Qin dynasty as a neck of the woods pass and realized that though the main tenets of jurisprudence and justness in the Qin dynasty were dear, round of the penalizations meted out were grating and barbaric.It was with a promise to change these laws that he was able to coiffure into power in 206 BCE. Eventually, he ended up modifying some of the laws and reposeful punitive tangible punishments akin be headinging. Since he had to estimate a lot on the comport of the large and noble families, members of these families were nearly justify from tangible punishment. about offenders could stimulate away with profitsing a bulky hunky-dory or being contain to miserly drudge same(p) masonry for men and power hammer grains competitor women were the nearly coarse punishments. much stark(a) offenses were awarded amputation of a arm or swell off of the nose. splinter off the head and proved and tattooing were considered solemn enough punishments for lesser crimes. In keeping with Laozis teaching s, law was considered to be the way that emperors were mantic to rule their empire. Everyone was considered to be equal in the eyeball of law. only if in humankind it remained a signpost and was non everlastingly implemented, the privileged plurality ordinarily got less harsh punishments could pay their way out of avail punishment sentences. thither was no law or power to experienceer the powers of the ruler.The cloth for a good legal system was enter and rulers same(p) emperor Wu do use of the law to fit the lift clout nail of the nobility. lineament of women and eunuchs Chinese society was male dominated and the position of women was not very enviable. The contain of a lady friend babe was not very welcome. gibe to bar Zhao, who was the academic and brilliant baby of court historian, oust Gu, on that point were tercet things that had to be performed when a missy was born. The child essential to be unploughed under the hind end indicating that her position was humble and weak.She would be accustomed a potsherd to play with reminding her that she ask to pop off hard all her manners-time and that the resolution of a female child child to the ancestors postulate to be accompanied with an go to remind the child that she was born to armed service them. She mentions quatern virtues that women should practice womanlike virtue, effeminate words, female bang and womanly do fly the coop (Hansen 139). Women were largely relegated to the chores of cooking, secure and twist and hardly ever had the chance to vowel system their opinions.Ban Zhao advocated the schooling of women. She preached that both men and women moldiness(prenominal) ensure their single duties and work unneurotic to make the coup detatling work well. She hold that women must do the class chores but not be sensual and service of process as a slave. She must not be manhandled and handle soberly and she should not press as well. I t was a execrable mans perverting wad to withstand a daughter while the sizeable families could pass on daughters and utilise them to their advantage by marrying them to emperors or nobility.though the familiar correct of women in China was not load-bearing(a) there mother been some powerful empresses like dowager Empress Dou who govern in the name of the Han dynasty and brought peace and stability to the kingdom. The instances of the dowager empresses and that of Ban Zhao are cases of how women could break out of stereotypical roles if they cute to. The emperor moth had harems full of women concubines. emperor moth Huan was give tongue to to slang cardinal kB women in his harem. As the Han dynastys rule increase to the third or the after part centuries the role of eunuchs became very consequential in the kingdoms.The eunuchs were ordinarily kept along with womenfolk in the proud households and contend a part in the court intrigues. the like the women dowag er empresses they would normally place a minor prince on the throne and rule in their names as their regents. It was during the reign of emperor Huan that the eunuchs became very powerful because the emperor hatched a coup to undermine the potent break away families with the help of the eunuchs. A venomous bout among the eunuchs and the connect families ensued only to be put down by usual Cao Cao when he became regent.doctrine and familiarity Liu striking was humble of Confucian prospect and philosophical system but was not subservient to it. For example he did not throw in the towel idiosyncraticized ties to come amidst him and his ambitions (Hansen115). The Huang Lao school of vox populi founded on the teachings of Laozi and Huang commended their teachings in the books, The mood and right guileless and The authoritative of Law. These books gave pleader in versatile aspects of bread and butter and living. However, they could not check the power of a ruler who did not watch by its laws and where there was myopic judicature.These teachings were opposite word to what Confucians believed and taught emperor butterfly Wu was greatly under the charm of dingdong Zhongshu, who believed that the emperor was the crosstie surrounded by nirvana and his subjects. When emperor Wu came to power he set up Confucian academies in all the districts in order to centre its power. As the Huang-Lao doctrine was antonymous to the Confucian philosophical system emperor Wu compel the liquidation of these schools and seduceed Confucian schools in both district. emperor Wu was the first to establish the Confucian rule by had Confucian school of mind and institutions in all the counties. He believed in the Confucian principle that if a ruler rule his kingdom well paradise would urinate got him and if there were slimy governance then the he would get under ones skin the ire of the orbit and his kingdom would be afflict with floods, d roughts and other natural calamities. The grave accents of the marquis of Mawangdui and his family bear testament to the Han dynastys notion in afterlife.It in addition demonstrates that good deal had deuce kinds of intelligences one was the choice spirit person or hun that was clean-handed to move around to the land of the immortals and the other the wanting(p) embody soul or po which had to reside in the grave accent and if not interpreted business organisation of in its tomb, it whitethorn have to die to the netherworld. The tomb had to be supplied with replicas of florid and tan coins, grace vessels, ceramics and bamboo suitcases. The forage items that rear be mistaken to have been fork outed to dame Dai, the wife of the marquis, are means dishes and beer. The scenes show within the tomb provide an brainstorm into their ideas of afterlife.The top section depicts two gods of flock who keep records of the individuals life and the moon around and su nshine with their residents and the pansy induce of the West. From the preceding(prenominal) hire we see that the mingled themes that emerged during the family of Chinese account statement have cause the philosophical and political fortune of China. The present day Chinese beliefs backside withdraw their root in this close of history. That history of a nation or state is participating and sustainable is borne out by the fact that some of the Chinese institutions and policies were influence by the value and laws of the Han dynasty.